Mar 6, 2022 ... Mechanisms of Disulfiram-Induced Cocaine Abstinence: Antabuse and Cocaine Relapse. Mol. Interv. 9, 175–187. doi:10.1124/mi.9.4.6. PubMed ...Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc. Aversion therapy is a behavioral therapy technique to reduce unwanted behavior. It pairs the stimulus that can cause deviant behavior (such as an alcoholic drink or cigarette) with some unpleasant (aversive) stimulus, such as an electric shock or nausea-inducing drug. With repeated presentations, the two stimuli become ...Check with your doctor right away if you have pain or tenderness in the upper stomach, pale stools, dark urine, loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, or yellow eyes or skin. Metronidazole may cause dry mouth, an unpleasant or sharp metallic taste, and a change in taste sensation. For temporary relief of dry mouth, use sugarless candy or gum, melt ...Alchohol dependence drugs | Patient. Medicines. Substance Abuse Treatment. Disulfiram tablets Antabuse. Last updated by Michael Stewart Peer … Disulfiram. Disulfiram is a medication used to support the treatment of chronic alcoholism by producing an acute sensitivity to ethanol (drinking alcohol). Disulfiram works by inhibiting the enzyme aldehyde dehydrogenase, causing many of the effects of a hangover to be felt immediately following alcohol consumption. Aug 20, 2023 · Brand name: Antabuse. Dosage form: oral tablet. Drug class: Drugs used in alcohol dependence. Medically reviewed by Carmen Pope, BPharm. Last updated on Aug 20, 2023. Uses. Warnings. Before taking. Side effects. Dosage. Interactions. What is disulfiram? It is sometimes called "near beer" or "low-alcohol beer" as U.S. law allows companies to label their products as non-alcoholic if they contain less than 0.5% alcohol. Only products labeled "alcohol free" truly contain no alcohol. Antabuse is designed to cause anyone who drinks alcohol while taking this drug severe discomfort.No. Antabuse is not a “magic pill” that cures alcoholism. Addiction, in any form, is an incurable and progressive disease that requires intervention, treatment, and lifestyle changes in order to best manage the symptoms. The good news is that Antabuse can keep you from drinking – protecting your physical …Naltrexone injection (Vivitrol) The injected form of this medication produces the same results as the oral version: It blocks the feel-good response …Here we highlight the potential for repurposing disulfiram (also known by the trade name Antabuse), an old alcohol-aversion drug that has been shown to be effective against diverse cancer types in ...Antabuse blocks an enzyme that is involved in processing alcohol. Disulfiram produces very unpleasant side effects (such as fast heartbeat, chest pain, nausea, dizziness, flushing, and thirst) when combined with alcohol in the body. Antabuse is used in certain people with chronic alcoholism. This medicine … See moreAntabuse ®, generic name disulfiram, has been extensively used in daily clinical practice to treat alcohol abuse.Disulfiram is used to treat chronic alcoholism. It causes unpleasant effects when even small amounts of alcohol are consumed. These effects include flushing of the face, headache, nausea, vomiting, chest pain, weakness, blurred vision, mental confusion, sweating, choking, breathing difficulty, and anxiety. These effects begin …Pharmacotherapies for Alcohol Addiction · Acamprosate (Campral) and Naltrexone (ReVia, Contrave) · Disulfiram (Antabuse).Pharmacotherapies for Alcohol Addiction · Acamprosate (Campral) and Naltrexone (ReVia, Contrave) · Disulfiram (Antabuse).Metronidazole is one of the mainstay drugs for the treatment of anaerobic bacterial infections, protozoal infections, and microaerophilic bacterial infections. It is cytotoxic to facultative anaerobic microorganisms. It is used to treat intestinal amebiases, liver amebiasis, bacterial septicemia, bone and joint infections, meningitis, brain abscess, …The alcohol-aversive effects of Antabuse were first recorded in the 1930s. Workers in the vulcanized rubber industry who were exposed to tetraethylthiuram disulfide became ill after drinking alcohol. In 1948, Danish researchers trying to find treatments for parasitic stomach infections discovered …Jan 12, 2024 · Naltrexone is a FDA-approved prescription alcohol treatment medication used to treat AUD and opioid use disorder. 1, 5 It comes in pill form or in an extended-release form that is injected into the muscle. 1, 5 For people with AUD, pills are taken daily or injections are given monthly. 1, 6. Studies have shown that naltrexone is effective at ... Abstract. Cancer incidence is rising and this global challenge is further exacerbated by tumour resistance to available medicines. A promising approach to meet the need for improved cancer treatment is drug repurposing. Here we highlight the potential for repurposing disulfiram (also known by the trade name Antabuse), an old alcohol-aversion ...May 29, 2023 · Available as. Tablets. Disulfiram is used alongside other treatments and counselling for alcohol dependency. It is only suitable for people who have been through detoxification ('detox') and have stopped drinking alcohol. It acts as a deterrent to drinking further alcohol. Disulfiram works by interfering with the way your body breaks down alcohol. Email or text this coupon to yourself. $ 69.38. Retail price: $ 115.04. Show this coupon at the pharmacy. BIN. 015995. PCN. Feb 27, 2020 · Its effects are psychological. Disulfiram and Antabuse are used to discourage alcohol consumption. The drugs cause adverse reactions, such as sweating, chest pain and nausea, when consumed with alcohol. People who take disulfiram don’t want to experience those unpleasant reactions, so they are inclined not to drink. The injection is given every 4 weeks by a healthcare provider. ... Disulfiram (formerly known as Antabuse) and naltrexone (Vivitrol) are two medication options that can help treat AUD. But they’re different in many ways, including how they work and their side effects. If you’re considering disulfiram or naltrexone, knowing about these ...Usual Adult Dose for Alcohol Dependence. Initial dose: 500 mg orally once a day (this dose is generally continued for the first 1 to 2 weeks) Maintenance dose: 250 mg orally once a day (range: 125 mg to 500 mg once a day) Maximum dose: 500 mg once a day. Duration of therapy: Depending on the individual, therapy may last months or even …The key search terms were “disulfiram” and “Antabuse”. Animal studies and in vitro studies highlighting important mechanisms and safety issues were also included. ... Mice who received disulfiram 30 min after an intra-articular injection of monosodium urate crystals showed decreased inflammatory cytokine production in the synovial ...Feb 7, 2024 · Disulfiram, also known by the brand name Antabuse, is a medication used in the treatment of alcohol use disorders by producing unpleasant side effects and sensitivity to alcohol. It is designed as a deterrent to drinking. When alcohol enters the body, it is converted into acetaldehyde and then into acetic acid. Disulfiram (), známý též pod svým obchodním názvem Antabus, je lék používaný v léčbě závislosti na alkoholu.Novější onkologický výzkum se věnuje jeho účinkům jako možného léku proti rakovině a připravuje se jeho testování při léčbě časných příznaků onemocnění covid-19. Problém s disulfiramem, popsaný blíže v sekci o léčbě rakoviny, je ten, že ...Naltrexone. Acamprosate. Disulfiram. Pathologic alcohol use affects more than 2 billion people and accounts for nearly 6% of all deaths worldwide. There are three medications approved for the treatment of alcohol use disorder by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA): disulfiram, naltrexone (oral and long-acting injectable), and aca ….Usual Adult Dose for Alcohol Dependence. Initial dose: 500 mg orally once a day (this dose is generally continued for the first 1 to 2 weeks) Maintenance dose: 250 mg orally once a day (range: 125 mg to 500 mg once a day) Maximum dose: 500 mg once a day. Duration of therapy: Depending on the individual, therapy may last months or even …blurred vision, aching, burning, or swollen eyes. chest pain. confusion. discomfort while urinating or frequent urination. fever. hallucinations or seeing, hearing, or feeling things that are not there. itching. mental depression or other mood or mental changes. ringing or buzzing in the ears.In the UK and the US the drug – Antabuse (disulfiram) is used in form of a daily pill. However, in Easter Europe people went one step further and found a way to make it work non-stop for at least 8-12 months. Esperal is using the same ingredient as Antabuse, but instead of being a pill, it’s an implant that goes under one’s skin.Acamprosate (Campral®) Naltrexone. Disulfiram (Antabuse®). They can be prescribed when someone has an alcohol dependence and wants to stop drinking, or has already stopped drinking. These medications are just one part of overall treatment, and should only be taken under medical supervision and as directed. 1.... injection known by the brand name Vivitrol), and disulfiram (known by the brand name Antabuse) ... disulfiram and acamprosate, disulfiram and naltrexone, and ...Antabuse was the only approved medication option for alcohol use disorder until the 1990s. Disulfiram continues to have a loyal following in Denmark, and remains available in many treatment programs. It is an admittedly harsh way of getting yourself to quit alcohol, but evidence suggests it can still be an effective option for some people. 4 The recommended starting dose is up to 500 mg for the first 2 weeks. However, the maintenance dose can range from 125 to 500 mg daily. 43 Patients must be abstinent from alcohol at least 12 to 24 hours prior to the initiation of disulfiram. 25 A blood alcohol level can be obtained in order to confirm abstinence. 25. disulfiram: [noun] a compound C10H20N2S4 that causes a severe physiological reaction to alcohol and is used especially in the treatment of alcoholism.Vivitrol is a once-monthly injection brand-name version of naltrexone that works by inhibiting the high that people experience when they drink alcohol. Naltrexone is also available as a tablet in the generic form. ... The third FDA-approved medication for treating AUD is Antabuse (disulfiram). This drug does not target cravings but assists in ...Nov 15, 2021 ... How is naltrexone different from Antabuse? Antabuse is a medication that causes you to get sick when you consume alcohol. Antabuse acts as a ...One 380 mg injection, monthly: Two 333 mg tablets, 3× daily: ... In 1951 disulfiram (Antabuse; now in generic formulations) was the first drug approved for the treatment of AUD by the FDA. Pharmacologically, disulfiram inhibits the enzyme aldehyde dehydrogenase. Even small amounts of alcohol can cause acetaldehyde to quickly …Once you have had an injection, you cannot drink for up to two weeks without risking side effects. An antabuse implant is another choice and lasts longer than an injection, about 12 months. …Its effects are psychological. Disulfiram and Antabuse are used to discourage alcohol consumption. The drugs cause adverse reactions, such as sweating, chest pain and nausea, when consumed with alcohol. People who take disulfiram don’t want to experience those unpleasant reactions, so they are inclined not to drink.Only once placed antabuse (disulfiram) implant releases working substance for up to one year. Oral tablets must be used everyday. Those alcohol addicted on oral tablets often stop treatment. Such a situation is impossible after antabuse (disulfiram) implant placement. The secretion of the drug into the body may be discontinued only after re ...As the name implies, Antabuse is used to prevent alcoholics from drinking. It sure works for that, but so does killing a mosquito by sitting in a room …Of these options, Antabuse (disulfiram) and naltrexone (often sold as Revia or Vivitrol) are among the best known. But the two medications are actually quite different. Antabuse was the first medication to treat AUD and is more of an old-school approach, making you sick when you drink. Naltrexone has been approved …It causes effects such as flushing of the face, headache, nausea, blurred vision, mental confusion etc., when even small amounts of alcohol are consumed. Disulfiram 250mg Tablet starts working from the very first dose and is a very safe and effective way of treating alcohol addiction. Avoid taking foods containing alcohol like mouthwash, cough ... Antabuse is a prescribed medication that is often used in alcoholism treatment. It also goes by the names Disulfiram and Antabus. Many have found tremendous relief from alcoholism due to this medication. It has proven to be quite effective to help with alcohol cessation. The questions that many people have are: Mar 6, 2022 ... Mechanisms of Disulfiram-Induced Cocaine Abstinence: Antabuse and Cocaine Relapse. Mol. Interv. 9, 175–187. doi:10.1124/mi.9.4.6. PubMed ...Vivitrol (naltrexone) is a prescription drug used to treat alcohol dependence and prevent opioid dependence. Vivitrol is given as an injection. Learn about side effects and more.Disulfiram is a supportive treatment option that acts as a deterrent from drinking alcohol and is available as a generic formulation as well as the Antabuse brand. When you drink alcohol, it is changed in the body into acetaldehyde, Disulfiram blocks the enzyme which breaks down acetaldehyde. This leads to an increased …A travers son équipe pluridisciplinaire spécialisée en stratégie médicale et stratégie de marque, Bosphore Sense accompagne l'ensemble des acteurs de santé dans ...Disulfiram implantation is a surgical procedure that aims to help alcoholics abstain from drinking by causing unpleasant reactions when they consume alcohol. This article reviews the clinical experiences of plastic surgeons who performed disulfiram implantation for the treatment of alcoholism, and …Aug 13, 2021 · Both naltrexone and Antabuse are generally well-tolerated, with minimal side effects. When taking naltrexone, the most common side effects are nausea and headaches. For those taking Antabuse, the most common side effects are headaches and drowsiness. It’s also important to note that alcohol should never be consumed while taking Antabuse. What is Disulfiram used for? Alcohol use disorder. How Disulfiram works. Disulfiram is an alcohol antagonist. It works by stopping a protein in your …Injections of cyanocobalamin, or vitamin B12, normally get administered daily to start. They are then given every other day for two to three weeks, and then monthly to treat pernic...Only once placed antabuse (disulfiram) implant releases working substance for up to one year. Oral tablets must be used everyday. Those alcohol addicted on oral tablets often stop treatment. Such a situation is impossible after antabuse (disulfiram) implant placement. The secretion of the drug into the body may be discontinued only after re ...Palpacuer C, Duprez R, Huneau A, et al. Pharmacologically controlled drinking in the treatment of alcohol dependence or alcohol use disorders: a systematic review with direct and network meta-analyses on nalmefene, naltrexone, acamprosate, baclofen and topiramate. Addiction 2018; 113:220. Gual A, He Y, …Palpacuer C, Duprez R, Huneau A, et al. Pharmacologically controlled drinking in the treatment of alcohol dependence or alcohol use disorders: a systematic review with direct and network meta-analyses on nalmefene, naltrexone, acamprosate, baclofen and topiramate. Addiction 2018; 113:220. Gual A, He Y, …Vivitrol (naltrexone) can interact with several types of substances, including illicit drugs, certain cold and cough medicines, and blood thinners. Talk to your doctor before taking any medications or supplements while on Vivitrol for a substance use disorder. Vivitrol is an addiction treatment medication that can interact with certain ...Sep 7, 2021 · Disulfiram is an alcohol deterrent used as an adjunct to treatment of chronic alcoholism, based upon its ability to cause an aversive reaction when taken with alcohol. Disulfiram has been associated with a low rate of with serum aminotransferase elevations during chronic therapy and has been linked to clinically apparent acute liver injury which can be severe and result in fatality. Apr 12, 2015 · sweating. weakness. In the first phase of treatment, a maximum of 500 mg of Antabuse is given daily, usually in a single dose for a period of one to two weeks. Although mainly prescribed for use in the morning, Antabuse may be taken on retiring by patients who experience a sedative effect. Alternatively, to minimize, or eliminate, the sedative ... Antabuse (Antibuse) is an alcohol-abuse deterrent used, along with counseling and support, to treat chronic alcoholism. Antabuse (Antibuse) works by blocking the breakdown of alcohol, causing unpleasant side effects (eg, vomiting, upset stomach) when even a small amount of alcohol is consumed. These effects include flushing …Disulfiram (commonly known as Antabuse) is an FDA-approved medication that has been in use for decades to encourage continued abstinence from alcohol. 1,2 Disulfiram interferes with the way the body metabolizes or breaks down alcohol. Because of this, when a person drinks while taking disulfiram, they may …Injections of cyanocobalamin, or vitamin B12, normally get administered daily to start. They are then given every other day for two to three weeks, and then monthly to treat pernic...Naltrexone also modifies how the hypothalamus, pituitary gland and adrenal gland (hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, HPA axis) interact to suppress the amount of alcohol consumed. Naltrexone comes as an extended-release intramuscular injection ( Vivitrol) and as oral tablets. The branded versions of naltrexone tablets (Revia, …Antabuse is a medication that makes you sick if you drink alcohol while taking it. Learn how it works, what to know before using it, and what side …Naltrexone is an alternative to Antabuse employed in managing alcohol dependence. It operates by blocking opioid receptors in the brain, decreasing the pleasure derived from alcohol consumption. This mechanism of action reduces cravings and the desire to drink. Unlike Antabuse, Naltrexone does not cause aversive effects when …Antabuse Implant. Antabuse Implant is one of the newest and most highly effective approaches to treating alcohol addiction. Antabuse (Disulfiram) is a well-known anti-alcohol medication commonly used in the USA and Great Britain in a daily pill form or intramuscular injections.It is effective, but if you are searching for …Antabuse (Antibuse) is an alcohol-abuse deterrent used, along with counseling and support, to treat chronic alcoholism. Antabuse (Antibuse) works by blocking the breakdown of alcohol, causing unpleasant side effects (eg, vomiting, upset stomach) when even a small amount of alcohol is consumed. These effects include flushing of the face ...Disulfiram For Alcoholism Treatment. Disulfiram (Tetraethylthiuram Disulfide or Antabuse) has been prescribed for the treatment of alcohol use disorders (AUDs) in the United States for more than 65 years and is currently used by more than 200,000 Americans. Disulfiram works by interfering with the body’s digestion and … A disulfiram-alcohol reaction can be fatal. liver problems --nausea, upper stomach pain, itching, tired feeling, loss of appetite, dark urine, clay-colored stools, jaundice (yellowing of the skin ... Sep 20, 2023 · Initial Dosage Schedule. In the first phase of treatment, a maximum of 500 mg daily is given in a single dose for one to two weeks. Although usually taken in the morning, disulfiram may be taken on retiring by patients who experience a sedative effect. Alternatively, to minimize, or eliminate, the sedative effect, dosage may be adjusted downward. Generic name: Disulfiram Drug Class: Drugs used in alcohol dependence. Antabuse (Disulfiram) blocks the enzyme involved in processing alcohol, ...Disulfiram . Disulfiram was the first drug approved for the treatment of alcoholism. Approved in 1951, 13 disulfiram has been the primary pharmacological treatment for alcoholism until the last three decades. Disulfiram inhibits the enzyme acetaldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH) from converting acetaldehyde, an intermediate in the metabolism …Staying stopped · Acamprosate (Campral) · Naltrexone (PDF 68KB) · Disulfiram (Antabuse) (PDF 281KB).Antabuse tablet, Teva, 250 mg, bottle, 100 count, NDC 00093-5035-01 - discontinued; Antabuse tablet, Teva, 500 mg, bottle, 100 count, NDC 00093-5036-01 - discontinued; Reason for the Shortage. Alvogen has disulfiram tablets available. They are the sole supplier of disulfiram tablets.CYP2C9 inhibitor, weak; CYP2E1 inhibitor, strong; aldehyde dehydrogenase inhibitor. Contraindicated. benznidazole. 1 interaction. Antabuse (disulfiram).Once you have had an injection, you cannot drink for up to two weeks without risking side effects. An antabuse implant is another choice and lasts longer than an injection, about 12 months. …Feb 2, 2024 · Key takeaways: Antabuse (disulfiram) is a once-daily oral tablet that’s FDA-approved to treat alcohol use disorder. Antabuse works by causing a negative reaction if you drink alcohol. The knowledge of the risk of this reaction is enough to help some people quit drinking. Antabuse isn’t a first-choice medication for alcohol use disorder. Nov 3, 2020 ... What are Antabuse implants and how do they work? How many types of implants exist? Disulfiram implants; Naltrexone implants. Can an implant for ... Email or text this coupon to yourself. $ 69.38. Retail price: $ 115.04. Show this coupon at the pharmacy. BIN. 015995. PCN. The half life of Antabuse is 60-120 hours and up to 20% of a single dose may remain in the body for a week or more. Antabuse starts to affect ethanol metabolism within 1-2 hours after administration. Following …Antabuse is a medication that makes you sick if you drink alcohol while taking it. Learn how it works, what to know before using it, and what side …blurred vision, aching, burning, or swollen eyes. chest pain. confusion. discomfort while urinating or frequent urination. fever. hallucinations or seeing, hearing, or feeling things that are not there. itching. mental depression or other mood or mental changes. ringing or buzzing in the ears.Acamprosate should only be taken under the care and direction of a physician. Disulfiram (Antabuse®). Therapeutic Effects. When people drink alcohol, their ... A disulfiram-alcohol reaction can be fatal. liver problems --nausea, upper stomach pain, itching, tired feeling, loss of appetite, dark urine, clay-colored stools, jaundice (yellowing of the skin ... Antabuse (disulfiram) dosing, indications, interactions, adverse effects, and more. Orphan designation for treatment of glioblastoma multiforme. Sponsor. Cantex Pharmaceuticals, Inc; 1792 Bell...
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Vivitrol basics. Vivitrol contains the active drug naltrexone. Vivitrol isn’t available as a generic. You’ll receive Vivitrol as an injection into a muscle of your …Sep 7, 2021 · Disulfiram is an alcohol deterrent used as an adjunct to treatment of chronic alcoholism, based upon its ability to cause an aversive reaction when taken with alcohol. Disulfiram has been associated with a low rate of with serum aminotransferase elevations during chronic therapy and has been linked to clinically apparent acute liver injury which can be severe and result in fatality. Apr 12, 2015 · sweating. weakness. In the first phase of treatment, a maximum of 500 mg of Antabuse is given daily, usually in a single dose for a period of one to two weeks. Although mainly prescribed for use in the morning, Antabuse may be taken on retiring by patients who experience a sedative effect. Alternatively, to minimize, or eliminate, the sedative ... Disulfiram (), známý též pod svým obchodním názvem Antabus, je lék používaný v léčbě závislosti na alkoholu.Novější onkologický výzkum se věnuje jeho účinkům jako možného léku proti rakovině a připravuje se jeho testování při léčbě časných příznaků onemocnění covid-19. Problém s disulfiramem, popsaný blíže v sekci o léčbě rakoviny, je ten, že ...It allows you to familiarize yourself with the most reliable and relevant information concerning disulfiram (antabuse) treatment. The main goal of our team ...Nov 3, 2020 ... What are Antabuse implants and how do they work? How many types of implants exist? Disulfiram implants; Naltrexone implants. Can an implant for ...A travers son équipe pluridisciplinaire spécialisée en stratégie médicale et stratégie de marque, Bosphore Sense accompagne l'ensemble des acteurs de santé dans ...Jan 12, 2024 · Naltrexone is a FDA-approved prescription alcohol treatment medication used to treat AUD and opioid use disorder. 1, 5 It comes in pill form or in an extended-release form that is injected into the muscle. 1, 5 For people with AUD, pills are taken daily or injections are given monthly. 1, 6. Studies have shown that naltrexone is effective at ... Antabuse To Stop Drinking: Why It Isn’t A Silver Bullet. Alcoholism is a chronic disorder affecting millions of people globally, and it can lead to severe health consequences. There are various treatment options available to help individuals recover from alcohol use disorder, one of which is the use of Antabuse, also known as disulfiram.. …Trimix is a penile injection used to treat erectile dysfunction and help keep penile tissue healthy, according to Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center. The cost of Trimix injecti...Mechanism of Action. Disulfiram is a thiuram derivative which blocks the oxidation of alcohol at the acetaldehyde stage. When taken concomitantly with alcohol, there is an increase in serum acetaldehyde levels. High acetaldehyde causes uncomfortable symptoms including flushing, throbbing in head and neck, …Jan 6, 2020 ... Targeting malignancies with disulfiram (Antabuse): multidrug resistance, angiogenesis, and proteasome. Curr Cancer Drug Targets. 2011;11:332 ...Jan 16, 2019 ... Antabuse, or disulfiram, and naltrexone are common medications used to treat alcohol use disorders. Both have been shown to improve outcomes ...Disulfiram implantation is a surgical procedure that aims to help alcoholics abstain from drinking by causing unpleasant reactions when they consume alcohol. This article reviews the clinical experiences of plastic surgeons who performed disulfiram implantation for the treatment of alcoholism, and …Key takeaways: We don’t know exactly how long disulfiram stays in your system. But its effects can last for up to 2 weeks. Disulfiram works by causing a negative reaction when you drink alcohol. You shouldn’t have any alcohol for at least 12 hours before taking disulfiram. Disulfiram is generally well tolerated.Apr 1, 2015 ... In Australia, there are three drugs currently approved − oral naltrexone, acamprosate and disulfiram. Only naltrexone and acamprosate are ...Operational intervention. Name. Antabuse is used to treat chronic alcoholism. It interferes with the metabolism of alcohol resulting in unpleasant effects when alcohol is consumed. Buy Disulfiram Tablets. Disulfiram 500mg/250mg to Buy.Introduction. Disulfiram has been used in the treatment of alcohol dependence with consistently successful results in individuals with high compliance or when medication intake has been directly supervised , , .Its mechanism of action for maintaining alcohol abstinence is thought to be primarily psychological , , , and ….